Battle of Borodino

Introduction

A chess match where every move is a gambit, every piece a critical player, and the stakes nothing less than the fate of empires. Such was the Battle of Borodino in 1812, a pivotal clash akin to the decisive moments on a grand chessboard. As Napoleon’s Grande Armée marched deeper into Russia, seeking to checkmate Tsar Alexander I, it encountered the formidable Russian Imperial Army near the village of Borodino. This battle, fought on September 7th, 1812, embodied Napoleonic warfare’s strategic complexity and devastating consequences. It was a collision of titans that would reverberate through history.

Background and Context

The background and context leading up to the Battle of Borodino in 1812 are crucial for understanding the significance and impact of this pivotal engagement during Napoleon’s invasion of Russia. This period marked by complex political dynamics, strategic maneuvering, and the clash of two formidable military forces.

• Napoleon’s Ambitions and the French Empire: By 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte had established himself as the dominant figure in Europe. As Emperor of the French and ruler of an expansive empire, Napoleon sought to enforce his authority and control over continental Europe through military conquests and political alliances. His ambitious vision included establishing a unified European order under French hegemony, known as the Napoleonic Empire.
• The Russian Campaign and Its Objectives: Napoleon’s decision to invade Russia in 1812 stemmed from strategic imperatives and geopolitical considerations. One key objective was to compel Tsar Alexander I of Russia to adhere to Napoleon’s Continental System, an economic blockade against British trade to weaken Britain economically. Additionally, Napoleon aimed to punish Russia for withdrawing from the Continental System and its perceived support for Britain.
• The Grande Armée’s Advance into Russia: In June 1812, Napoleon assembled the Grande Armée, one of Europe’s largest and most formidable military forces ever mobilized. Comprising soldiers from across Napoleon’s empire and its client states, the Grande Armée numbered over 600,000 men. Napoleon planned to defeat the Russian forces swiftly, capture key cities like Moscow, and compel Tsar Alexander to negotiate a favorable peace settlement.
• Russian Defensive Strategy: Facing the massive French invasion, the Russian strategy, under the leadership of General Mikhail Kutuzov, focused on avoiding direct confrontation while engaging in a strategic retreat. The Russian forces employed scorched-earth tactics, systematically destroying resources and infrastructure along the invading route to deprive the Grande Armée of essential supplies and shelter. This strategy aimed to wear down the enemy through attrition and force Napoleon’s forces to overextend themselves.
• Logistical Challenges and Attrition: Russia’s vast distances and harsh conditions posed significant logistical challenges for the Grande Armée. Supply lines stretched thin, and the logistics of feeding and equipping such a massive force became increasingly difficult. The Russian scorched-earth tactics further exacerbated these challenges, leading to widespread shortages and attrition within Napoleon’s army even before significant engagements took place.
• Strategic Importance of Borodino: As Napoleon’s forces advanced towards Moscow, the Russians chose to stand at Borodino, a village on the road to the Russian capital. The Battle of Borodino represented a critical juncture in the campaign—a decisive engagement where both sides recognized the significance of the outcome. For Napoleon, victory at Borodino was essential to breaking Russian resistance and achieving his objectives in Russia.
• European Political Context: The outcome of Napoleon’s Russian campaign had profound implications for European politics. The fate of Napoleon’s empire and the balance of power on the continent rested on the success or failure of his Russian campaign. Allies and adversaries closely watched the unfolding events, anticipating the broader repercussions for their alliances and ambitions.

Forces and Commanders

The forces and commanders involved in the Battle of Borodino in 1812 were significant figures in military history, leading large and formidable armies into one of the most decisive battles of the Napoleonic Wars.

1. French Forces (Grande Armée)

Napoleon Bonaparte commanded the Grande Armée during the invasion of Russia. This multinational force comprised soldiers from various parts of Napoleon’s empire and allied states. At the campaign’s outset, the Grande Armée numbered around 600,000 troops, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery units. However, attrition, disease, and casualties from previous engagements significantly reduced the strength of Napoleon’s army by the time of the Battle of Borodino.

2. Key French Commanders

• Napoleon Bonaparte: Emperor of the French and supreme commander of the Grande Armée. Known for his tactical brilliance and charismatic leadership, Napoleon personally directed operations during the battle.
• Marshal Michel Ney: One of Napoleon’s most trusted and skilled marshals, Ney played a crucial role in leading French forces at Borodino, particularly in key attacks on the Russian positions.
• Marshal Joachim Murat: Known as the “King of Cavalry,” Murat commanded the French cavalry forces and significantly coordinated cavalry attacks during the battle.
• Marshal Louis Davout: Commanded one of the corps of the Grande Armée and was instrumental in holding and attacking the Russian left flank during the battle.

3. Russian Forces (Imperial Russian Army)

Under the overall command of General Mikhail Kutuzov, the Russian Imperial Army faced the French invasion with a combination of regular troops, Cossack cavalry, and militia units. Fortified positions and artillery placements around Borodino also supported the Russian forces.

4. Key Russian Commanders

• General Mikhail Kutuzov: Appointed as the commander-in-chief of Russian forces following Barclay de Tolly’s resignation, Kutuzov led the Russian strategy of avoiding direct confrontation and engaging in a strategic retreat before making a stand at Borodino.
• General Pyotr Bagration: During the Battle of Borodino, Bagration, a highly respected Russian commander, played a critical role in defending the Russian left flank, although he sustained mortal wounds during the fighting.
• General Barclay de Tolly: Initially in command of Russian forces before Kutuzov, Barclay de Tolly’s strategy of avoiding direct battles and employing scorched-earth tactics set the stage for the Russian defensive posture leading up to Borodino.
• General Prince Eugene of Württemberg: Commanded one of the Russian corps and coordinated defensive efforts against French attacks during the battle.

Terrain and Battlefield

The terrain and battlefield of the Battle of Borodino played a crucial role in shaping the course of the engagement and influencing the tactics employed by the French and Russian armies. Understanding the landscape helps to contextualize the decisions made by the commanders and the challenges faced by the troops during this pivotal battle.

• Location and Geographic Features: The Battle of Borodino took place on September 7, 1812, near the village of Borodino, located about 120 kilometers (75 miles) west of Moscow, Russia. The battlefield encompassed a mixture of open fields, gently rolling hills, wooded areas, and several villages that provided strategic points of defense and cover.
• Kolocha River: The Kolocha River ran through the battlefield, impacting troop movements and defensive positions. While not a major obstacle, the river influenced the deployment of forces and the establishment of defensive lines.
• The Great Redoubt: One of the most significant features of the battlefield was the Great Redoubt, a formidable earthen fortification constructed by the Russians to defend their center. This elevated position provided a strong defensive advantage, commanding a wide view of the surrounding area and presenting a formidable obstacle for any attacking force.
• Bagration Fleches: To the south of the Great Redoubt were the Bagration Fleches, a series of smaller fortified positions and redoubts that formed part of the Russian defensive line. The opposing forces fiercely contested these positions during the battle.
• Semyonovskoye Heights: The Semyonovskoye Heights, situated north of the battlefield, crucially influenced the battle’s outcome. The French made several unsuccessful attempts to capture these heights, which provided a strategic vantage point overlooking the Russian positions.
• Wooded Areas and Villages: Throughout the battlefield, scattered wooded areas and villages provided cover for troops and influenced the movement of forces. Villages such as Borodino, Semenovskoe, and Utitsa were focal points of the battle and changed hands multiple times during the fighting.
• Impact on Tactics and Strategy: The terrain of Borodino presented challenges for both attackers and defenders. The Russian defensive strategy relied on leveraging natural and man-made defensive positions, including the Great Redoubt and Bagration Fleches, to maximize the effectiveness of their limited forces against the larger French army.

Tactical and Strategic Considerations

Complex tactical and strategic considerations on both the French and Russian sides shaped the Battle of Borodino in 1812. Understanding these factors provides insights into the decisions made by the commanders and the conduct of the battle itself.

• Napoleon’s Strategic Objectives: Napoleon’s primary objective during the Russian campaign was to force Tsar Alexander I into submission and secure a favorable peace settlement that would strengthen French control over Europe. The Battle of Borodino was a critical step towards achieving this goal, as capturing Moscow and defeating the Russian army would demonstrate French military superiority and compel the Russians to negotiate.
• Russian Defensive Strategy: Under the leadership of General Mikhail Kutuzov, the Russian strategy was defensive and focused on attrition. The Russians avoided direct confrontation with Napoleon’s massive Grande Armée, opting instead to retreat and draw the French deeper into Russian territory. The strategy aimed to stretch Napoleon’s supply lines, exhaust his forces, and wait for an opportunity to strike a decisive blow.
• French Approach to the Battle: Napoleon understood the importance of decisively defeating the Russian army at Borodino to pave the way for the capture of Moscow. He planned for a direct assault on the Russian positions, aiming to break through their defensive lines using overwhelming force and artillery bombardment. Napoleon’s tactics relied on concentrated attacks at key points of the Russian defenses, particularly targeting the Great Redoubt and Bagration Fleches.
• Russian Defensive Fortifications: The Russians had strategically positioned defensive fortifications, including the Great Redoubt and Bagration Fleches, to anchor their defensive line. These positions were heavily fortified with artillery and infantry, presenting formidable obstacles for the advancing French forces.
• Role of Artillery: Both sides relied heavily on artillery during the battle. The Russians used their artillery to defend key positions and disrupt French advances, while Napoleon deployed a large number of cannons to soften up the Russian defenses before launching infantry assaults. Artillery duels were a prominent feature of the battle, contributing significantly to the high casualties on both sides.
• Cavalry Engagements: The battle also saw significant cavalry engagements, with French cavalry under Marshal Murat attempting to exploit gaps in the Russian lines and disrupt their formations. However, the uneven terrain and the resilience of the Russian infantry limited the effectiveness of cavalry charges.

The Battle Begins

The Battle of Borodino began with a series of initial maneuvers and clashes on September 5-6, 1812, leading up to the main engagement on September 7th. These preliminary actions set the stage for the intense fighting that would unfold near the village of Borodino.

• Clash at Shevardino (September 5, 1812): On September 5th, a significant clash occurred at the village of Shevardino, located northwest of Borodino. The Russian 3rd Corps, under General Dmitry Dokhturov, fiercely defended the village against French attacks led by Marshal Davout. The fighting was intense, with heavy casualties on both sides, but the Russians ultimately withdrew to their main positions closer to Borodino.
• Initial Maneuvers and Clashes (September 5-6, 1812): As the French Grande Armée approached the Russian positions near Borodino, there were skirmishes and reconnaissance actions between the advance units of both armies. Napoleon’s forces sought to probe Russian defenses and identify weaknesses in their positions. The Russians, under General Kutuzov, prepared to defend key strategic points while avoiding direct engagement until the time was right.
• Deployment of Troops and Artillery Positions: In the days leading up to the battle, Napoleon and Kutuzov deployed their troops and positioned artillery along the battlefield. The Russians concentrated their defenses around key strong points, including the Great Redoubt and Bagration Fleches, while the French prepared for a frontal assault on the Russian lines. Napoleon orchestrated a massive concentration of artillery to soften up the Russian positions before launching infantry attacks.
• Opening Exchanges of the Battle (September 7, 1812): On the morning of September 7th, Napoleon ordered the Grande Armée to begin its assault on the Russian defenses. The battle opened with a fierce artillery barrage from both sides, as French cannons bombarded the Russian positions, and the Russians responded in kind. The deafening roar of artillery fire set the stage for the following infantry engagements.

The Bloody Day of September 7, 1812

September 7, 1812, marked the climax of the Battle of Borodino, characterized by intense and bloody combat between the French Grande Armée and the Russian Imperial Army. This pivotal day saw significant tactical maneuvers, fierce infantry engagements, and devastating artillery barrages that resulted in heavy casualties on both sides.

1. French Assault on the Russian Defenses

• Morning Artillery Barrage (Around 6:00 AM): The day began with a concentrated French artillery bombardment targeting the Russian defensive positions, including the Great Redoubt and Bagration Fleches.
• Infantry Advancements: Following the artillery barrage, French infantry divisions advanced across open terrain towards the Russian lines. The initial assaults began around 7:00 AM, with troops maneuvering under heavy fire.

2. Russian Defense and Counterattacks

• Fierce Resistance: The Russian troops, under the overall command of General Kutuzov, fiercely defended their positions, especially around the Great Redoubt and Bagration Fleches. The defenders used musket volleys and bayonet charges to repel French assaults.
• Counterattacks and Artillery Response: Russian forces launched counterattacks against the advancing French troops, attempting to regain lost ground. Russian artillery batteries continued to inflict heavy casualties on the densely packed French formations.

3. Capture and Recapture of Key Positions

• Struggle for the Great Redoubt: One of the focal points of the battle was the struggle for control of the Great Redoubt, a formidable earthwork defended by Russian troops. The French launched multiple assaults on the redoubt and, after fierce hand-to-hand combat, managed to capture it temporarily.
• Back-and-Forth Fighting: Throughout the day, control of key positions such as the Great Redoubt and Bagration Fleches changed hands multiple times as both sides fought fiercely for strategic advantage.

4. Cavalry Charges and Flank Maneuvers

• Role of French Cavalry: Marshal Murat led several daily cavalry charges, attempting to exploit gaps in the Russian lines and disrupt their formations. However, the uneven terrain and determined Russian resistance limited the effectiveness of these charges.
• Russian Flank Defense: Russian cavalry and infantry units defended the flanks of the main defensive positions, preventing French attempts to outflank the Russian lines and encircle their forces.

5. High Casualties and Exhaustion

• Sheer Carnage: The Battle of Borodino on September 7th caused immense casualties on both sides, with tens of thousands of soldiers either killed or wounded. The ferocity of the combat and the unyielding nature of the defense exacted a heavy toll on the morale and physical endurance of the troops.
• Exhaustion and Stalemate: By evening, the French and Russian forces were exhausted from hours of relentless combat. Despite some gains by the French, the overall strategic situation remained a stalemate, with neither side achieving a decisive breakthrough.

6. Conclusion of the Day

• Nightfall and Ceasefire: As night fell on September 7th, the intensity of the battle gradually subsided. Both armies halted major offensive actions, allowing time to tend to the wounded and regroup for the next day.
• Outcome and Implications: The day of September 7, 1812, witnessed one of the bloodiest engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. Although the French made initial progress, the Russian army’s determined defense prevented a decisive victory. The Battle of Borodino on this day set the stage for subsequent developments in Napoleon’s Russian campaign, ultimately leading to the French retreat and the unraveling of Napoleon’s grand ambitions in the East.

Aftermath and Impact

The aftermath and impact of the Battle of Borodino were profound, shaping the course of Napoleon’s Russian campaign and leaving lasting effects on European history. The battle’s outcome and its consequences reverberated across the continent, ultimately contributing to Napoleon’s downfall.

• Assessment of Casualties and Losses: The Battle of Borodino resulted in staggering casualties on both sides. Estimates suggest that the French suffered around 30,000 to 35,000 casualties, including killed, wounded, and captured. Russian losses were similarly high, with estimates ranging from 40,000 to 45,000 casualties. The sheer scale of human suffering highlighted the brutal nature of Napoleonic warfare.
• Strategic Implications for Napoleon: Despite the tactical victory achieved by Napoleon at Borodino, the battle did not result in the decisive breakthrough he had hoped for. The Russian army, although significantly weakened, managed to withdraw in relatively good order, denying Napoleon the opportunity for a conclusive victory.
• Psychological Impact on Troops and Commanders: The intense and prolonged fighting at Borodino took a heavy toll on the morale and spirit of both French and Russian forces. The high casualties and exhaustion experienced by the troops contributed to a sense of disillusionment and weariness among Napoleon’s army.
• Failure to Capture Moscow and Strategic Setbacks: Following the Battle of Borodino, Napoleon’s forces advanced towards Moscow, only to find the city abandoned and set ablaze by retreating Russian forces. The French occupation of Moscow proved hollow and unsustainable, leading to logistical challenges and worsening conditions for Napoleon’s army.
• Russian Resilience and Guerrilla Warfare: The Russian strategy of scorched-earth tactics and strategic retreats, exemplified by the events after Borodino, demonstrated their determination to resist Napoleon’s invasion. Russian forces engaged in guerrilla warfare, disrupting French supply lines and diminishing their ability to sustain the campaign.
• Turning Point in Napoleon’s Russian Campaign: The Battle of Borodino marked a turning point in Napoleon’s Russian campaign. While the French technically won the battle, they failed to achieve the decisive victory needed to force Tsar Alexander I into submission. The campaign subsequently unraveled as Napoleon’s army suffered from logistical difficulties, harsh winter conditions, and relentless Russian resistance during the retreat.
• Impact on European Geopolitics: Napoleon’s failure in his Russian campaign and his retreat from Moscow significantly affected European geopolitics. The defeat weakened Napoleon’s hold on his empire and emboldened his adversaries, ultimately leading to the formation of the Sixth Coalition against France and the eventual downfall of Napoleon’s regime.
• Commemoration and Historical Significance: The Battle of Borodino is remembered as one of the bloodiest conflicts of the Napoleonic Wars and holds a prominent place in European military history. It symbolizes the Russian people’s resilience and determination to defend their homeland against foreign invasion.

Conclusion

The Battle of Borodino in 1812 stands as a pivotal moment in the Napoleonic Wars, showcasing the brutal realities and strategic complexities of warfare. While Napoleon achieved tactical gains, the battle did not deliver the decisive victory he needed. The staggering casualties, logistical challenges, and Russian resilience ultimately led to the unraveling of Napoleon’s Russian campaign. Borodino marked a turning point, exposing the limits of Napoleon’s ambitions and contributing to his eventual downfall. The battle’s legacy underscores the enduring consequences of hubris in military endeavors and highlights the profound impact of strategic miscalculations on historical events.