Biography of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

Updated December 26, 2023

Architect of Modern India

Jawaharlal Nehru, a prominent figure in Indian politics during the mid-20th century, played an important role in India’s journey towards independence and its subsequent development as a modern nation. His life and career can be broadly categorized under several key phases:

Early Life and Education (1889–1912)

• Birth and Family Background: Born on November 14, 1889, in Allahabad, British India, Jawaharlal Nehru belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community. His father, Motilal Nehru, was a successful barrister and a prominent figure in the Indian National Congress.
• Childhood: Nehru’s early years were characterized by a privileged upbringing. He was educated at home by private tutors, developing an interest in science and theosophy.
• Youth and Education in England: Jawaharlal Nehru nationalist sentiments were kindled during his youth. He attended Harrow School and later Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with a degree in natural science. His time in England was influential in shaping his political and economic ideologies.

Early Political Career (1912–1929)

• Return to India and Legal Practice: After studying law at the Inner Temple in London, Jawaharlal Nehru became an advocate and joined the Allahabad High Court in 1912 upon returning to India. He showed minimal interest in legal practice compared to his increasing involvement in nationalist politics.
• Entry into Politics: Nehru joined the Indian National Congress, becoming a leader of its progressive faction and receiving the support of Mahatma Gandhi, who later designated him as his political heir.

Leadership and Struggle for Independence (1930s–1947)

• Rise in Indian National Congress: During the 1930s, Nehru emerged as a dominant figure in Indian politics. He advocated for a secular nation-state and led the Congress to significant victories in provincial elections.
• Quit India Movement: Nehru participated in the Quit India Movement in 1942, which led to his imprisonment. After his release, he faced a changed political landscape, with the Muslim League gaining prominence.
• Interim Prime Minister: In 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru became the interim prime minister of India, navigating complex political dynamics ahead of India’s independence.

Prime Minister of India (1947–1964)

• Independence and First Prime Minister: Nehru’s leadership was instrumental in India’s independence. He gave the iconic speech “Tryst with Destiny” and became India’s first prime minister after the country gained independence.
• Reforms and Policies: As Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru implemented ambitious economic, social, and political reforms. He promoted parliamentary democracy, secularism, and scientific advancement.
• Foreign Policy and Non-Aligned Movement: Nehru played a crucial role in the Non-Aligned Movement, steering India away from the Cold War blocs.
• Congress Leadership and Electoral Success: Under his leadership, the Congress party dominated national politics, winning several elections.

Jawaharlal Nehru’s involvement in the nationalist movement from 1912 to 1938 marked a period of political awakening and radicalization for him and India. His journey through this period can be divided into several key phases:

Britain and Return to India (1912–1913)

• Introduction to Politics: Shortly after returning from Britain in 1912, Jawaharlal Nehru attended the Indian National Congress’s session in Patna. Disenchanted with the elitist nature of the Congress, he still committed to supporting the Indian civil rights movement led by Gandhi.
• Early Activism: Nehru began his political journey by campaigning against the discrimination faced by Indians in British colonies, including indentured labor.

World War I and Political Radicalization (1914–1915)

• World War I: Jawaharlal Nehru views during World War I were complex. He had mixed feelings, admiring French culture and experiencing vicarious pleasure in seeing the British rulers challenged.
• Volunteer Work: During the war, he volunteered for the John Ambulance and worked as a provincial secretary in Allahabad. He also opposed British censorship in India.
• Shift Toward Radical Politics: Post-war, Nehru leaned towards more radical political views, challenging the dominant moderate voices in the Indian National Congress.

Home Rule Movement (1916–1917)

• Marriage and Family: Nehru married Kamala Kaul in 1916, with whom he had his daughter, Indira, and a son who died shortly after birth.
• Home Rule Leagues: Influenced by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Jawaharlal Nehru joined the Home Rule movement, seeking Dominion status for India within the British Empire.
• Lucknow Pact: The 1916 Lucknow Pact marked a significant step in Hindu-Muslim unity, which Nehru supported and promoted.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1927)

• Active Participation: Jawaharlal Nehru became heavily involved in the Non-Cooperation Movement led by Gandhi in 1920, advocating for nonviolent resistance against British rule.
• Arrest and Loyalty to Gandhi: In 1921, authorities arrested him for anti-government activities, yet he stayed devoted to Gandhi’s leadership, even as others formed the Swaraj Party in response to the Chauri Chaura incident.
• Continued Activism: Nehru’s involvement continued with various activities and prison terms, reflecting his deepening commitment to India’s struggle for independence.

Internationalizing the Struggle (1927)

• Global Outreach: Recognizing the interconnected nature of colonial struggles, Jawaharlal Nehru worked to internationalize India’s fight for independence, seeking allies worldwide.
• League Against Imperialism: In 1927, Nehru was elected to the League’s Executive Council against Imperialism after representing India at the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities in Brussels.
• Sympathy for Other National Movements: Jawaharlal Nehru sympathized with other national movements against British imperialism, such as in Palestine, aligning India’s struggle with global anti-imperialism.

Presidency and Vision at Lahore (1929)

• Presidency of the Indian National Congress: Nehru succeeded his father, Motilal Nehru, as President of the Lahore session of the Indian National Congress in December 1929.
• Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy: He drafted a resolution outlining the aims of the Congress and a vision for a future independent India, emphasizing rights and socialist economic policies.

Declaration of Independence (1929)

• Advocacy for Complete Independence: Jawaharlal Nehru was among the forefront leaders advocating for an explicit and complete break from British rule, a stance he took as early as the Madras session in 1927.
• Formation of the Independence for India League: Nehru established this group within the Congress to advocate for immediate independence.
• Negotiations with Gandhi: He negotiated with Gandhi to shorten the timeline for the British to grant Dominion status, leading to a resolution demanding immediate action.

Lahore Congress Session (December 1929)

• Presidential Address and Resolution: As President, Nehru introduced a successful resolution for complete independence at the Lahore session.
• Drafting the Declaration of Independence: Nehru drafted the Indian Declaration of Independence, which articulated the right to freedom and self-government.

Symbolic Acts and Public Mobilization (1929–1930)

• Hoisting the Tricolour: On New Year’s Eve 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the Indian tricolor on the banks of the Ravi in Lahore, symbolizing the formal claim for Purna Swaraj (complete self-rule).
• Observance of Independence Day: The Congress asked the people to observe January 26 as Independence Day, marked by the public hoisting of the Indian flag and mass resignations from British-appointed positions.

Emergence as Paramount Leader (Late 1920s–1930s)

• Gradual Ascendancy: Following the Lahore session, Nehru’s prominence in the nationalist movement grew, and he was increasingly seen as Gandhi’s political heir.
• Gandhi’s Role Transition: While Gandhi continued to influence the movement, he stepped back into a more spiritual role, paving the way for Nehru’s leadership.

Salt March and Civil Disobedience (1930)

• Initial Ambivalence: Nehru was initially unsure about Gandhi’s plan to target the British salt tax but soon realized the symbolic power of salt in mobilizing the masses.
• Arrest and Incarceration: He was arrested for participating in the Salt March and manufacturing contraband salt, which showed his commitment to the cause.

Impact of Salt Satyagraha (Post-1930)

• Rising Popularity: The Salt March significantly raised the profile of the Congress and Nehru, drawing international attention to India’s struggle for independence.
• Change in Attitudes: Nehru believed the real importance of the movement lay in the empowerment it brought to ordinary Indians, fostering a sense of national unity and resistance.

Political and Economic Shifts (1936–1938)

• European Visit and Economic Ideology: Nehru’s visit to Europe 1936 profoundly impacted his political and economic philosophy, deepening his interest in Marxism and socialism.
• Personal Loss: The period also saw personal tragedy with the death of his wife, Kamala Nehru, in Switzerland.

Involvement in Electoral Politics (1936–1938)

• Contesting Provincial Elections: Despite his initial reluctance, Nehru led the Congress in the 1937 provincial elections under the Government of India Act 1935, resulting in significant victories.
• Rejection of the Muslim League’s Claims: Nehru dismissed the Muslim League’s claim as an equal partner in Indian politics, asserting the primary role of the Congress and the British in Indian affairs.

Role in Congress and Nationalist Politics (1936–1938)

• A bridge between Leftists and Gandhi: Nehru acted as a mediator between the Congress Socialist Party and Gandhi, maintaining a balance within the INC.
• Presidency and Influence: His presidency of the Congress (1936–37) and his support from left-wing leaders helped shape the party’s policies and direction.

Advocacy for Princely States and Economic Planning (Late 1930s)

• Attention to Princely States: Nehru was among the first nationalist leaders to address the conditions in the princely states, integrating their struggles with the broader independence movement.
• National Planning Commission: Nehru established the National Planning Commission in 1938 to frame economic policies and plans as part of his vision for an independent India.

Foreign Policy and International Relations (1930s)

• Developing Foreign Policy: Nehru was instrumental in framing the foreign policy for a future independent India, emphasizing relationships with free nations worldwide.
• Realization of Global Politics: His understanding of global political dynamics, especially concerning the potential of another world war, shaped his views on India’s international stance.

All India States Peoples Conference (Late 1930s)

• Leadership in AISPC: Nehru became the President of the All India States Peoples Conference in 1939, advocating for the rights of people in the princely states.
• Contribution to Integration: His work with AISPC laid the groundwork for the eventual political integration of these states into India post-independence.

World War II and India’s Position (1939)

• The outbreak of World War II: The declaration of war by Britain on behalf of India, without consulting Indian representatives, caused significant discontent.
• Nehru’s Response: Nehru, emphasizing support for democracy over fascism, insisted that India should contribute to the war effort, but only as a free nation.

Congress’s Stance and Deadlock with the British (1939)

• Conditional Support for Britain: Under Nehru’s leadership, the Congress offered cooperation with the British war effort but with conditions for India’s independence and political participation.
• British Rejection: The British, led by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, rejected these conditions, leading to a deadlock. Nehru expressed frustration over this repeated pattern of British intransigence.

Resignation of Congress Ministries (October 1939)

• Protest Against Viceroy’s Decision: In response to the British government’s attitude, Nehru and the Congress called for the resignation of Congress ministries in various provinces as a form of protest.
• Failed Attempt to Involve Muslim League: Nehru invited the Muslim League and Jinnah to join the protest, but Jinnah declined, signaling a deepening rift.

Divergence with Subhas Chandra Bose (Late 1930s)

• Split with Bose: Nehru and Bose parted ways ideologically, as Bose was willing to seek fascist support to expel the British, which Nehru strongly opposed.
• Support for Anti-Fascist Forces: Nehru supported democratic forces against fascism, as evidenced in the Spanish Civil War, and even refused to meet Mussolini.

Lahore Resolution and Pakistan Proposal (March 1940)

• Jinnah’s Pakistan Resolution: Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s call for a separate Muslim state named Pakistan greatly alarmed Nehru, who saw it as a significant challenge to Indian unity.
• Nehru’s Reaction: Nehru vehemently opposed the idea, marking a clear opposition to the concept of a divided India based on religious lines.

Civil Disobedience and Imprisonment (1940–1941)

• Civil Disobedience Campaign: Gandhi and Nehru, shifting their stance from supporting the British war effort, launched a limited civil disobedience movement.
• Nehru’s Arrest: Nehru was arrested and imprisoned for four years as part of this campaign, demonstrating his commitment to the cause despite the risk of imprisonment.

Gandhi’s Statement on Nehru (January 1941)

• Gandhi’s Endorsement: Gandhi reaffirmed his close relationship with Nehru and identified him as his political successor, dispelling any rumors of estrangement.

Release from Prison (1941)

• Release Before Pearl Harbor: Shortly before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, authorities released Nehru and other Congress prisoners from jail, signifying a significant moment in the war and Indian politics.

Japanese Threat and Cripps’ Mission (1942)

• Japanese Advance: In 1942, as Japan advanced through Burma towards India, the British government felt compelled to negotiate with Indian leaders.
• Cripps’ Mission: Sir Stafford Cripps was sent to India with a proposal to resolve the constitutional deadlock. Nehru, known for seeking compromise, was hopeful about this mission.
• Political Divide: Cripps discovered deep divisions in Indian politics. While Nehru was eager for a settlement, Gandhi demanded complete independence. Jinnah, representing the Muslim League, insisted on Pakistan.

Failure of Cripps’ Mission

• Intractable Differences: The mission failed due to irreconcilable differences between the British proposals, Gandhi’s insistence on independence, and Jinnah’s demand for Pakistan.
• Strained Relations: Nehru and Gandhi experienced a temporary cooling in their relationship over their different responses to Cripps’ proposals, but they later reconciled.

Quit India Movement (1942)

• Congress Resolution: In response to the failed negotiations and the growing threat from Japan, the Congress party passed the Quit India resolution in August 1942 in Bombay, calling for immediate British withdrawal.
• Mass Arrests: Following this, the British government arrested the entire Congress leadership, including Gandhi, Nehru, Abdul Kalam Azad, and Sardar Patel, drastically altering the political landscape.

Imprisonment and Writings (1942–1945)

• Incarceration at Ahmednagar Fort: Nehru and other leaders were imprisoned at Ahmednagar Fort, where Nehru wrote his famous work, “The Discovery of India.”
• Rise of the Muslim League: During this period, the Muslim League gained significant power in the absence of Congress leadership.

Muslim League’s Growth and Jinnah’s Revival (1943–1944)

• Political Gains: The Muslim League formed governments in Bengal and the North-West Frontier Province, areas where they previously lacked a majority.
• Bengal Famine and Public Opinion: The Bengal famine of 1943–44, which caused widespread suffering, negatively impacted the League’s popularity.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1944)

• Negotiations for a Solution: Released from prison for health reasons, Gandhi met with Jinnah in 1944 to discuss a possible solution, including a plebiscite in Muslim-majority areas.
• Breakdown of Talks: The talks ultimately failed due to Jinnah’s insistence on explicit acceptance of Pakistan and Gandhi’s refusal to agree to these terms.
• Boost to Jinnah’s Position: Despite the breakdown, these talks enhanced Jinnah’s political stature, positioning him as a key player in negotiations about India’s future.

Cabinet Mission and Interim Government (1946–1947)

• Cabinet Mission: In 1946, the British Cabinet Mission arrived in India to discuss power transfer. Nehru, released from prison, was actively involved in these negotiations.
• Formation of the Interim Government: Following the Mission’s proposals, provincial assembly elections were held. The Indian National Congress surfaced as the largest party and formed an interim government with Nehru as Prime Minister. The Muslim League, led by Liaquat Ali Khan, later joined this government.

Nehru as Prime Minister (1947–1964)

• Long Tenure: Nehru served as Prime Minister for 17 years, overseeing crucial transformations in the newly independent India.

Republicanism and Integration of Princely States

• Stance on the Princely States: Nehru was adamant that independent India wouldn’t accept the divine right of kings. He, along with Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon, played a significant role in integrating the princely states into the Indian Union.
• Constitutional Development: The drafting of the Indian Constitution saw debates about the role of princely states. Nehru’s strong advocacy for a centralized Indian republic is evident in the final Constitution.

Independence and Dominion of India (1947–1950)

• Communal Violence and Political Disorder: Communal violence and political disorder marked the period leading up to independence, worsened by the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan.
• Tryst with Destiny: On August 15, 1947, Nehru delivered his famous speech, “Tryst with Destiny,” marking India’s independence.

Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi (1948)

• Gandhi’s Assassination: In January 1948, Gandhi’s assassination shocked the nation, prompting Nehru to deliver a heartfelt radio speech that united the country in grief.

Integration of States and Adoption of New Constitution (1947–1950)

• Political Integration of India: Nehru and Patel oversaw the integration of princely states into the Indian Union, a complex process involving negotiations and, in some cases, military action.
• Adoption of the Constitution: India adopted the new Constitution on January 26, 1950, thereby establishing itself as a sovereign, democratic republic. Nehru played a crucial role in its framing, emphasizing democratic principles and secularism.

Election of 1952

• First General Election: India’s first general election under the new Constitution was held in 1952. It was a monumental event, being one of the most extensive democratic exercises in history.
• Congress Victory: The Indian National Congress, led by Nehru, won a decisive victory, securing a majority in both the national and state legislatures.

Prime Minister: 1952–1957

• States Reorganisation Commission: In 1953, Nehru appointed the States Reorganisation Commission, headed by Justice Fazal Ali, to reorganize state boundaries based on linguistic lines.
• Seventh Amendment: The Seventh Amendment of the Constitution in 1956 led to the reclassification of Indian states and the creation of Union Territories.

Elections of 1957 and 1962

• Second and Third General Elections: Nehru led the Congress to victory again in the 1957 and 1962 elections, although with a reduced majority in 1962.
• Rise of Opposition Parties: These elections saw a growth in support for Communist and Socialist parties and right-wing groups like the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.

Annexation of Goa (1961)

• Military Action in Goa: Nehru authorized the Indian military to annex Goa from Portuguese control in 1961, a popular move in India but one that attracted criticism from some quarters.

Sino-Indian War of 1962

• Border Dispute with China: Tensions over the disputed Sino-Indian border escalated, with Nehru adopting a “Forward Policy” that involved setting up military outposts in contested areas.
• Outbreak of War: China launched a military attack against these outposts in 1962, leading to the Sino-Indian War. India faced a significant defeat.
• Aftermath: The war exposed the inadequacies of the Indian military and led to the resignation of Defence Minister V.K. Krishna Menon. Nehru sought military aid from the United States and improved relations with the Soviet Union.
• Policy of Non-Alignment: Nehru maintained his commitment to the Non-Aligned Movement despite the war, resisting pressure to align India with any major power bloc.

Defence and Foreign Policy

• Indigenous Weaponisation: Following the war, there was a shift towards developing India’s military capabilities using indigenous resources. This policy was further pursued by Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi.
• Support for Tibetan Refugees: Nehru also increased support for Tibetan refugees and revolutionaries who opposed Chinese occupation.

Legacy and Death (1964)

• Architect of Modern India: Nehru’s contributions to India’s development earned him the title of “Architect of Modern India.” His policies and vision significantly shaped the nation’s trajectory in the post-independence era.
• Death: Nehru’s tenure as Prime Minister, the longest in India to date, ended with his death from a heart attack on May 27, 1964.

Conclusion

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, a visionary leader, shaped India’s identity with his commitment to democracy, secularism, and economic progress. His legacy, spanning political principles, economic ideologies, and global diplomacy, resonates in contemporary India. While subject to scrutiny, Nehru’s enduring influence on democratic values, social cohesion, and international relations underscores his pivotal role in laying the foundation for India’s journey as a vibrant, diverse, and evolving nation.