Boxer Rebellion

Introduction

A violent uprising against foreigners and Christians in China from 1899 to 1901, the Boxer Rebellion, was also known as the Yihetuan Movement or the Boxer Uprising. A secret society led it called the “Righteous and Harmonious Fists” (Yihetuan), known in English as the Boxers, who opposed the presence of foreign powers and Christian missionaries in China. Perceived encroachment of Western powers and the spread of Christianity fueled resentment, leading to the rebellion. One of the most significant events of the rebellion was the siege of the foreign legation quarter in Beijing, where foreign diplomats and Chinese Christians sought refuge. The Boxer Rebellion had far-reaching consequences, leading to significant loss of life and property and major political and cultural changes in China.

Historical Context

• Late Qing Dynasty: The late 19th century was a tumultuous period for the Qing Dynasty, marked by internal strife, corruption, and economic decline. Defeats in the Opium Wars and the loss of territory to foreign powers weakened the Qing government.
• Foreign Influence: China’s defeat in the Opium Wars and the signing of unequal treaties with Western powers profoundly impacted Chinese society. Foreign powers gained extraterritorial rights and control over key ports and territories.
• Taiping and Nian Rebellions: China was already grappling with internal rebellions before the Boxer Rebellion. The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and the Nian Rebellion (1851-1868) weakened the Qing government and caused widespread devastation.
• Droughts and Famine: In the late 19th century, China experienced several natural disasters, such as droughts and famines, which exacerbated the country’s social and economic issues.
• Rapid Westernization: The influx of Western ideas, technology, and culture during the 19th century challenged traditional Chinese values and ways of life, leading to a sense of cultural crisis and identity loss among many Chinese.
• Missionary Activity: Christian missionaries from the West had been active in China since the early 19th century, leading to tensions with traditional Chinese religious and cultural practices. The spread of Christianity threatened Chinese traditions and values.
• Anti-Dynastic Sentiments: The Chinese population grew increasingly discontented with the Qing Dynasty, which they saw as ineffective in dealing with internal and external challenges. This provided fertile ground for anti-dynastic movements like the Boxer Rebellion to take root.

Causes of the Boxer Rebellion

A complex interaction of political, social, economic, and cultural elements drove the Boxer Rebellion. Here are the key causes:

• Anti-Foreign Sentiment: Chinese society harbored deep-seated resentment towards foreign powers, particularly in the wake of the Opium Wars and the signing of unequal treaties that humiliated China. Many Chinese viewed foreigners as invaders who threatened their sovereignty and traditional way of life.
• Anti-Christian Sentiment: The spread of Christianity in China by Western missionaries was perceived as a threat to traditional Chinese culture and beliefs. People saw Christian converts as traitors to their heritage, and they often viewed missionaries as agents of foreign imperialism.
• Socio-Economic Discontent: China struggled with economic hardships, including widespread poverty, unemployment, and landlessness. Discontent among the peasantry and unemployed urban workers fueled support for movements like the Boxers, offering a sense of empowerment and solidarity against perceived oppressors.
• Crisis of Governance: The Qing Dynasty faced internal decay and external pressure from Western powers and Japan. Corruption, incompetence, and a lack of effective governance eroded confidence in the Qing government’s ability to address China’s problems.
• Drought and Famine: Natural disasters, including droughts and famines, exacerbated many Chinese peasants’ already dire living conditions. These hardships further fueled social unrest and provided fertile ground for anti-government and anti-foreign movements to gain traction.
• Rise of Nationalism: The Boxer Rebellion coincided with a rise in nationalist sentiment in China, as intellectuals and reformers called for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and the expulsion of foreign influence. The Boxers tapped into this nationalist fervor, framing their movement as a defense of Chinese culture and identity against foreign encroachment.

Rise of the Boxers

The Boxer movement, known as the “Righteous and Harmonious Fists” or simply the Boxers, emerged in northern China in the late 19th century. Here’s how the Boxers rose to prominence:

• Origins: The Boxer movement originated in Shandong Province, where droughts, famine, and economic hardships fueled discontent among the rural population. The movement began as a self-defense society, with members practicing martial arts and traditional Chinese rituals to ward off illness and bullets, which they believed rendered them invulnerable to harm.
• Anti-Foreign and Anti-Christian Sentiments: The Boxers’ ideology was deeply rooted in anti-foreign and anti-Christian beliefs. They blamed foreigners and Christians for China’s woes and saw their presence as a threat to Chinese culture and traditions.
• Spread of the Movement: The Boxer movement immediately became well-known and extended throughout northern China. The promise of protection from harm and the opportunity to resist foreign influence attracted the rural poor and unemployed, making its appeal powerful.
• Support from Local Officials: Some local officials and members of the Qing Dynasty court sympathized with the Boxers and saw them as potential allies against foreign powers. This tacit support allowed the movement to grow and gain momentum.
• Attacks on Foreigners and Chinese Christians: As the Boxer movement gained strength, its members began targeting foreigners, foreign missionaries, and Chinese Christians. They carried out attacks on foreign-owned businesses, Christian churches, and Chinese converts to Christianity, leading to a sharp increase in tensions between China and Western powers.
• Conflict with the Qing Government: The Boxers’ activities eventually brought them into conflict with the Qing government, which initially tried to suppress the movement to maintain good relations with foreign powers. However, as the Boxers’ actions escalated, the government’s response became more ambivalent, leading to a full-scale rebellion.

Timeline of Events

Date	Event
November 1899	Boxer movement gains momentum in Shandong Province.
May 1900	Boxers begin attacking foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians.
June 20, 1900	Boxers besiege the foreign legations in Beijing.
June 21, 1900	Qing government declares war on foreign powers, supporting the Boxers.
June-August 1900	Boxer Rebellion spreads to other parts of China, targeting foreigners.
August 14, 1900	The international force of the Eight-Nation Alliance lands in China to suppress the rebellion.
August 14-September 7,1900	The ongoing siege of the foreign legations in Beijing persists.
September 23, 1900	Relief of the legations by the international forces.
November 7, 1900	Qing government signs the Boxer Protocol, agreeing to pay reparations to foreign powers.
1901	Foreign troops occupy Beijing and Tianjin; Boxer Rebellion officially ends.
1901-1902	Qing government implements reforms under pressure from foreign powers.
1912	Qing Dynasty collapses, marking the end of imperial rule in China.

Key Figures

• Empress Dowager Cixi: Cixi, the de facto ruler of China at the time, initially endorsed the Boxers but later declared war on foreign powers in retaliation for their quelling of the rebellion. Her actions contributed to the conflict’s escalation and internationalization.
• Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao: Chinese reformers who advocated for modernization and political reform. They were critical of the Qing government’s handling of the Boxer Rebellion and its failure to address China’s internal problems.
• Seymour and Alfred von Waldersee: Foreign military commanders who led the Eight-Nation Alliance forces in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion. Their leadership was instrumental in the success of the international intervention.
• Dong Fuxiang: A Chinese general who led the Muslim Gansu Braves to support the Boxer cause. His forces were known for their fierce resistance against the Eight-Nation Alliance.
• William A. P. Martin and Claude Maxwell MacDonald: Diplomats who played key roles in negotiating the Boxer Protocol, which ended the rebellion and imposed penalties on China for its role in the conflict.
• Yuan Shikai: A Chinese general who initially backed the Qing government’s crackdown on the Boxers but later switched allegiance and joined forces with the revolutionaries, contributing to the downfall of the Qing Dynasty.

Anti-Foreign Sentiments

Anti-foreign sentiments among the Chinese population fueled the Boxer Rebellion. Here are some key factors that contributed to these sentiments:

• Historical Context: China had a long history of conflict with foreign powers, including the Opium Wars and the imposition of unequal treaties that ceded territory and extraterritorial rights to Western powers. These events left a legacy of humiliation and resentment towards foreigners.
• Perceived Cultural Superiority: Many Chinese viewed their own culture as superior to Western culture, leading to a sense of cultural arrogance and a belief in the superiority of Chinese civilization.
• Economic Exploitation: Foreign powers, particularly Western countries, had established spheres of influence and concessions in China, exploiting its resources and controlling key industries. This economic exploitation fueled anti-foreign sentiments.
• Religious Tensions: Western missionaries spreading Christianity in China were seen as engaging in cultural imperialism that threatened traditional Chinese beliefs and values.
• Perceived Foreign Interference: Foreign powers were seen as interfering in China’s internal affairs, dictating its policies, and undermining its sovereignty. Many Chinese deeply resented this interference.
• Social Darwinism and Racism: Ideas of Social Darwinism and racial superiority were prevalent in Western societies at the time, leading to perceptions of Chinese people as inferior and deserving of subjugation.
• Exploitation of Chinese Labor: Chinese laborers were often subjected to harsh treatment and discrimination in foreign-owned businesses and industries, contributing to anti-foreign sentiments.

Response of the Qing Government

The Qing government’s response to the Boxer Rebellion was initially ambivalent but later became support for the Boxers. Here’s an overview:

• Initial Reaction: In the early stages of the Boxer movement, the Qing government did not take strong action against the Boxers, viewing them as a potential tool to resist foreign encroachment. Some officials sympathized with the Boxers’ anti-foreign and anti-Christian sentiments.
• Empress Dowager Cixi’s Support: Empress Dowager Cixi, the effective ruler of China during that period, issued edicts endorsing the Boxers and their objective of expelling foreigners and Christians. This support encouraged the Boxers and helped them gain momentum.
• Change in Policy: As the Boxer Rebellion escalated and foreign powers demanded action from the Qing government to protect their citizens and interests in China, the government’s stance shifted. Some officials advocated for a more conciliatory approach towards the foreigners to avoid international conflict.
• Declaration of War: In June 1900, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict declaring war on all foreign powers, leading to a declaration of war against China by the Eight-Nation Alliance.
• Suppression of the Rebellion: As the Eight-Nation Alliance launched military campaigns to suppress the Boxer Rebellion, the Qing government’s forces were also involved in the conflict, although their efforts were largely ineffective.
• Aftermath: After quenching the Boxer Rebellion and signing the Boxer Protocol in 1901, foreign powers compelled the Qing government to pay indemnities and concede to heightened foreign presence and influence in China. The rebellion and the government’s response further weakened the Qing Dynasty’s authority and contributed to its eventual downfall in 1912.

International Intervention

International intervention in the Boxer Rebellion was a significant aspect of the conflict, involving military forces from multiple foreign powers. Here’s an overview:

• Formation of the Eight-Nation Alliance: In response to the Boxer Rebellion and the siege of foreign legations in Beijing, eight major foreign powers formed an alliance to intervene in China. The alliance consisted of forces from Japan, Russia, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and the United States.
• Military Campaigns: The Eight-Nation Alliance launched military campaigns to suppress the Boxer Rebellion and protect their citizens and interests in China. These campaigns involved a combination of ground forces, naval bombardments, and diplomatic pressure.
• Siege of Beijing: The most significant event of the international intervention was the siege of Beijing, during which Boxer forces and Qing government troops besieged foreign legations. The Eight-Nation Alliance relieved the legations, which had been besieged for over two months, while small contingents of foreign troops defended them.
• Capture of Beijing: After breaking the siege of Beijing, the Eight-Nation Alliance captured the city and occupied it for several months. Foreign troops carried out reprisals against Chinese civilians suspected of collaborating with the Boxers, leading to widespread destruction and loss of life.
• Imposition of Indemnities: As part of the settlement following the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion, the foreign powers forced the Qing government to pay indemnities to compensate for their losses during the conflict. These indemnities imposed a heavy financial burden on China and contributed to further economic hardship.
• Signing of the Boxer Protocol: In September 1901, the Qing government signed the Boxer Protocol with the foreign powers, officially ending the Boxer Rebellion. The protocol included provisions for the punishment of Boxer leaders, the payment of indemnities, and increased foreign presence and influence in China.

Legacy and Impact

The Boxer Rebellion had a profound and enduring impact on China and its relationships with the global community. Here are some key aspects of its legacy:

• End of the Qing Dynasty: The Boxer Rebellion underscored the Qing Dynasty’s weakness and ineffectiveness, hastening the erosion of its authority and legitimacy. The rebellion contributed to the dynasty’s decline and eventual overthrow in 1912.
• Increased Foreign Influence: The suppression of the Boxer Rebellion resulted in harsh terms imposed on China by foreign powers, including paying indemnities and stationing foreign troops in key cities. This increased foreign influence and control over China’s affairs.
• Loss of Sovereignty: The Boxer Rebellion demonstrated China’s inability to defend its sovereignty and territorial integrity against foreign aggression. It underscored China’s status as a weak and divided nation in the eyes of the world.
• Nationalist Awakening: The Boxer Rebellion fueled nationalist sentiments in China, as many Chinese saw it as a failed attempt to resist foreign imperialism. This nationalist awakening set the stage for subsequent movements, including the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which overthrew the Qing Dynasty and formed the Republic of China.
• Impact on Foreign Relations: The Boxer Rebellion strained China’s relations with foreign powers, mainly Western countries. It led to increased hostility and suspicion toward foreigners in China and a backlash against foreign influence and presence in the country.
• Cultural and Social Changes: The Boxer Rebellion had a lasting impact on Chinese society and culture. It led to reevaluating traditional values and beliefs and a greater awareness of China’s place in the world.

Conclusion

The Boxer Rebellion was a complex and transformative event in Chinese history, marking the culmination of decades of internal turmoil and external pressures. It highlighted the weaknesses of the Qing Dynasty and the challenges of modernization and foreign imperialism. The rebellion’s suppression led to increased foreign influence in China and contributed to the eventual downfall of the Qing Dynasty. The legacy of the Boxer Rebellion includes a heightened sense of nationalism, a reevaluation of traditional values, and a shift in China’s relations with the rest of the world. It remains a symbol of China’s struggle for sovereignty and national identity.