Italian Risorgimento

Introduction

The Italian Risorgimento, or “Resurgence,” was a transformative period in the 19th century that led to the unification of Italy. Before the Risorgimento, Italy was a patchwork of fragmented states under foreign domination and lacking a sense of national identity. This movement aimed to unite these states into a single, sovereign nation. A key example of Risorgimento’s impact is Giuseppe Garibaldi’s story. Garibaldi, a charismatic and skilled military leader, played a crucial role in the unification process through his daring military campaigns, most notably the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860. His actions and the diplomatic efforts of figures like Count Camillo di Cavour helped establish the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Background

• Political Fragmentation: Italy was divided into several states, each with its own ruler, laws, and systems. The major states included the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Papal States, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma, and the Duchy of Modena.
• Foreign Domination: Many parts of Italy were under foreign control. Austria controlled Lombardy and Venetia, while France controlled Savoy and Nice. The Pope controlled the Papal States with support from French troops.
• Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: Italy was culturally and linguistically diverse, with different regions speaking different dialects and having distinct cultural identities. This diversity hindered efforts toward national unity.
• Economic Disparities: There were significant economic disparities between Italy’s northern and southern regions. The north was more industrialized and economically prosperous, while the south was largely agrarian and economically underdeveloped.
• Inspiration from European Revolutions: The revolutions of 1848 in Europe, which sought to establish liberal and nationalist ideals, inspired Italian nationalists to push for similar reforms and unification.
• Intellectual and Cultural Movement: An intellectual and cultural movement fueled the Risorgimento, emphasizing the need for Italy to regain its past glory and achieve unity. Writers, poets, and intellectuals played a significant role in promoting nationalist ideas.

Early Stages of the Risorgimento

The Italian Risorgimento comprised several key phases, each marked by significant events and developments:

• Congress of Vienna (1815): After the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna rebuilt Europe, but it disregarded the demands for independence and unity by Italian nationalists, leading to discontent among Italians.
• Carbonari and Secret Societies: Secret societies like the Carbonari emerged, advocating for liberal reforms and national unity. They were instrumental in organizing and heading protests against foreign tyrants.
• Revolutionary Outbreaks (1820-1821): Inspired by liberal and nationalist ideas, revolutions broke out in several Italian states, including the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Piedmont-Sardinia, and the Papal States. However, Austrian intervention ultimately suppressed these uprisings.
• Role of Intellectuals: Italian intellectuals like Giuseppe Mazzini emerged as prominent figures in the nationalist movement. Mazzini founded Young Italy to create a united, republican Italy.
• Failure of Revolutions (1848): In 1848, there were widespread revolutionary movements across Europe, including in Italy. Although conservative forces, particularly Austria, initially crushed these movements, they showed promise.
• Impact of the Early Stages: Despite the failures of the early stages of the Risorgimento, they laid the groundwork for future nationalist movements and set the stage for the later unification of Italy.

Key Figures

• Giuseppe Garibaldi: A skilled military leader and a key figure in Italy’s unification, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand, a campaign that contributed significantly to the country’s unification.
• Count Camillo di Cavour: Prime minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and a leading figure in the movement for Italian unification. Cavour was a skilled diplomat who was crucial in securing alliances and expanding Piedmont’s influence.
• Giuseppe Mazzini: An influential intellectual and activist, Mazzini was one of the founding fathers of the Risorgimento. He founded the organization Young Italy, which advocated for Italy’s unification as a republic.
• Victor Emmanuel II: King of Piedmont-Sardinia and later the first king of a united Italy. Victor Emmanuel played a crucial role in the diplomatic and political aspects of the unification process.
• Pope Pius IX: Initially seen as a supporter of liberal reforms, Pius IX’s refusal to support the Italian unification movement led to his eventual loss of temporal power and the capture of Rome by Italian forces.
• Napoleon III: Napoleon III, the French emperor, contributed significantly to the unification of Italy by aiding Piedmont-Sardinia in their conflicts against Austria.
• King Ferdinand II: King of the Two Sicilies, Ferdinand’s oppressive rule and resistance to reform made him a target of the Italian nationalist movement.
• King Francis II: Son of Ferdinand II and last King of the Two Sicilies, his reign ended with Garibaldi’s conquest of the kingdom and the subsequent unification of Italy.
• Daniele Manin: A Venetian patriot and leader of the Venetian Republic during the 1848 revolutions, Manin played a crucial role in defending Venice against Austrian forces.
• Francesco Crispi: An Italian patriot and statesman, Crispi played a significant role in Italy’s unification and later served as Prime Minister.

Wars of Independence

The Wars of Italian Independence were a series of conflicts fought between 1848 and 1871 as part of the broader Risorgimento movement to unify Italy. These wars were instrumental in overthrowing foreign rulers, consolidating Italian states, and ultimately leading to the unification of Italy as a single nation-state. Here’s an overview of the key wars:

• First War of Independence (1848-1849): The first major war of the Risorgimento, triggered by uprisings against Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venetia. The Austrian army defeated the Italian forces, and the war ended with the Treaty of Milan, restoring Austrian control despite initial successes.
• Second War of Independence (1859): Also known as the Franco-Austrian War, this conflict was sparked by the ambitions of Napoleon III of France and Count Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia to expel Austria from Italian lands. The war resulted in the defeat of Austria at the Battle of Solferino and the cession of Lombardy to France, which then transferred it to Piedmont-Sardinia.
• Expedition of the Thousand (1860): Led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, a volunteer force of a thousand men sailed from Genoa to Sicily to liberate the island from Bourbon rule. The successful campaign led to the fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the unification of southern Italy with Piedmont-Sardinia.
• Third War of Independence (1866): Italy fought this war against Austria-Hungary. It was part of Prussia’s campaign against Austria. Despite initial setbacks, Italy’s alliance with Prussia led to the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz. The war ended with the Treaty of Vienna, in which Austria ceded Venetia to Italy.
• Capture of Rome (1870): The final step in Italian unification, Italian troops under General Cadorna captured Rome from the Papal States, completing the unification of Italy and making Rome its capital.

Role of Piedmont-Sardinia

• Political Leadership: Piedmont-Sardinia, under the leadership of figures like Count Camillo di Cavour, provided political leadership to the Italian unification movement. Cavour’s diplomatic skills and statesmanship were instrumental in gaining support from other European powers.
• Military Support: Piedmont-Sardinia provided military support to other Italian states in their struggles against foreign powers. The Piedmontese army, commanded by King Victor Emmanuel II, was involved in several pivotal conflicts of the Risorgimento.
• Diplomatic Efforts: In an attempt to garner support for the cause of Italian unification, Piedmont-Sardinia employed diplomatic tactics. Cavour’s alliances with France, particularly with Napoleon III, were crucial in securing victories against Austria and other foreign powers.
• War of Independence: Piedmont-Sardinia was directly involved in the Wars of Independence against Austria. The kingdom’s military campaigns, particularly in the Second War of Italian Independence, were crucial in weakening Austrian control over Italian territories.
• Annexation of Central Italy: After the unification of most of northern Italy, Piedmont-Sardinia annexed central Italian states such as Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Romagna. These territories voluntarily joined Piedmont-Sardinia through plebiscites, further strengthening the kingdom’s position as the leader of the Italian unification movement.
• Role in the Kingdom of Italy: Following the unification of Italy in 1861, Piedmont-Sardinia became the Kingdom of Italy, with Victor Emmanuel II as its king. Piedmont’s institutions and administrative system were extended to the rest of Italy, consolidating the kingdom’s influence over the newly unified nation.

Garibaldi and the Expedition of the Thousand

• Origins: The Expedition of the Thousand was a military campaign led by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860. Garibaldi, a prominent figure in the Risorgimento, aimed to liberate southern Italy from Bourbon rule and contribute to the unification of Italy.
• Departure from Genoa: On May 5, 1860, Garibaldi and his volunteers, known as the Thousand, departed from the port of Genoa aboard ships acquired with the support of sympathetic merchants and Italian nationalists.
• Landing in Sicily: The expedition landed in Sicily on May 11, 1860, at Marsala. Garibaldi’s forces quickly gained local support, and with limited resistance, they marched inland, capturing key towns and cities.
• Battle of Calatafimi: Garibaldi’s forces encountered their first significant resistance at the Battle of Calatafimi on May 15, 1860. Despite being outnumbered, the Thousand emerged victorious, boosting their morale and attracting more volunteers to their cause.
• March through Sicily: Garibaldi’s forces continued their march through Sicily, facing scattered resistance from Bourbon troops. Along the way, they garnered support from local peasants and nationalists, swelling their ranks.
• Capture of Palermo: On May 27, 1860, Garibaldi’s forces entered the city of Palermo, the capital of Sicily, after a brief siege. The capture of Palermo marked a significant victory for the expedition and dealt a severe blow to Bourbon control in Sicily.
• March to Naples: After securing Sicily, Garibaldi marched towards Naples to overthrow the Bourbon monarchy. His forces crossed the Strait of Messina and landed on the Italian mainland, where they encountered increasing resistance from Bourbon troops.
• Meeting with Victor Emmanuel II: As Garibaldi’s forces advanced towards Naples, negotiations occurred between Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia. Garibaldi agreed to relinquish his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II, paving the way for the unification of Italy under the Piedmontese monarchy.

Unification of Italy

The unification of Italy, known as the Risorgimento (“Resurgence” or “Revival”), was a complex process that spanned several decades and involved various political, military, and diplomatic efforts. The major events and factors that contributed to Italy’s unification are summarized below:

• Early Nationalist Sentiment: In the early 19th century, nationalist sentiment grew in Italy, fueled by resentment against foreign rule and inspired by liberal and democratic ideas spreading across Europe.
• Role of Intellectuals: Italian intellectuals and activists, such as Giuseppe Mazzini, played a crucial role in promoting nationalist ideas and organizing resistance against foreign powers. Mazzini’s organization, Young Italy, advocated for the unification of Italy as a republic.
• Revolutionary Movements (1848-1849): The Revolutions of 1848 sparked widespread uprisings across Europe, including in Italy. While conservative forces, particularly Austria, initially crushed these revolutions, they showed promise.
• Role of Piedmont-Sardinia: One of the main forces behind the unification effort was the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, led by King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour. Piedmont-Sardinia’s relatively liberal government and strong military made it a natural leader for the nationalist cause.
• Alliance with France: Cavour’s diplomatic skills led to an alliance with France, particularly with Emperor Napoleon III. France’s support was crucial in weakening Austrian influence in Italy and securing victories against Austrian forces.
• Wars of Independence: Italy achieved unification through a series of wars against foreign powers, particularly Austria. The First War of Italian Independence (1848-1849), the Second War of Italian Independence (1859), and the Third War of Italian Independence (1866) were all crucial in expanding Piedmont-Sardinia’s territory and weakening Austrian control.
• Garibaldi’s Expeditions: Giuseppe Garibaldi’s military campaigns, particularly the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, were instrumental in liberating southern Italy from Bourbon rule and expanding the territory of the Kingdom of Italy.
• Capture of Rome: The capture of Rome in 1870, the final obstacle to Italian unification, marked the completion of the process. Rome became the capital of Italy, and the Papal States were annexed, except for Vatican City, which became an independent city-state.

Challenges and Obstacles

• Foreign Intervention: One of the biggest challenges to Italian unification was foreign intervention, particularly from Austria, which controlled Lombardy and Venetia, and France, which supported the Papal States. The intervention of these powers often thwarted Italian nationalist efforts.
• Internal Divisions: Multiple states and regions, each with its own ruler and interests, divided Italy. This internal fragmentation made it difficult to achieve unity, as different states had conflicting agendas and loyalties.
• Papal Opposition: The Papal States, under the control of the Pope, opposed Italian unification, fearing the loss of temporal power. The Pope’s opposition to nationalist movements, particularly in central Italy, hindered the unification process.
• Lack of Popular Support: In the early stages of the Risorgimento, nationalist movements often lacked widespread popular support. Most of the population was more concerned with local issues and allegiances than with the broader goal of Italian unification.
• Military Challenges: Italian forces faced significant military challenges, especially in their conflicts with Austria. The Austrian army was well-trained and well-equipped, posing a formidable obstacle to Italian unification efforts.
• Economic Disparities: Italy’s economic disparities, with the north being more industrialized and prosperous than the south, created tensions and divisions within the country. Addressing these disparities was a significant challenge for the unification movement.
• Religious and Cultural Differences: Italy was culturally and religiously diverse, with different regions having distinct identities and traditions. Overcoming these differences to create a sense of national unity was a major obstacle for the Risorgimento.

Achievements of the Risorgimento

• Unification of Italy: The primary achievement of the Risorgimento was the unification of Italy into a single nation-state. The House of Savoy brought together the various states and territories of the Italian peninsula through a series of wars, diplomatic maneuvers, and popular uprisings. In 1861, Italy declared Victor Emmanuel II its next king.
• End of Foreign Domination: The Risorgimento ended centuries of foreign domination and interference in Italian affairs. The defeat of Austrian and other foreign forces allowed Italy to assert its independence and sovereignty.
• Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy: The Kingdom of Italy, established after the Risorgimento, was a constitutional monarchy with a parliament and a constitution that guaranteed certain rights and freedoms to its citizens. This marked a significant departure from the absolute monarchies and foreign-controlled states that had previously existed in Italy.
• Cultural and Intellectual Revival: A cultural and intellectual revival accompanied the Risorgimento in Italy. Artists, writers, and thinkers celebrated the ideals of unity, liberty, and independence, contributing to the development of a distinctly Italian national identity.
• Expansion of Territory: Italy’s unification led to the expansion of its territory, as various states and regions voluntarily joined the new kingdom. This expansion laid the foundation for Italy’s modern borders.
• Inspiration for Nationalist Movements: The Risorgimento inspired nationalist movements in other parts of Europe and the world. Italy’s successful unification demonstrated that disparate states and regions could come together to form a unified nation.
• Legacy of Unity: The Risorgimento left a lasting legacy of unity and national pride in Italy. The ideals and achievements of the Risorgimento continue to resonate in Italian society and culture, shaping the country’s identity and sense of purpose.

Legacy of the Risorgimento

• National Unity: The Risorgimento laid the foundation for Italian national unity, bringing together disparate states and territories under a single nation-state. The concept of Italy as a unified entity became ingrained in the collective consciousness of Italians.
• Formation of Italian Identity: The Risorgimento played a crucial role in shaping Italian identity and fostering a sense of nationalism among the Italian people. It celebrated Italy’s cultural heritage and historical legacy, contributing to a shared sense of pride and belonging.
• Political Modernization: The Risorgimento led to significant political modernization in Italy, establishing a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system. It introduced democratic principles and institutions that formed the basis of modern Italian governance.
• End of Foreign Domination: The Risorgimento ended centuries of foreign domination and interference in Italian affairs. It expelled foreign powers like Austria from Italian territories and asserted Italy’s independence and sovereignty.
• Inspiration for Nationalist Movements: The success of the Risorgimento served as an inspiration for nationalist movements around the world. It demonstrated that oppressed peoples could achieve liberation and self-determination through unity and perseverance.
• Cultural Renaissance: The Risorgimento sparked a cultural renaissance in Italy, with artists, writers, and intellectuals celebrating the ideals of liberty, unity, and independence. It promoted Italian literature, art, and music, contributing to Italy’s reputation as a cultural powerhouse.
• Continued Challenges: Despite its achievements, the Risorgimento left unresolved issues and divisions within Italy. Economic disparities between the north and south, regional identities, and social inequalities persisted, posing ongoing challenges to Italian unity and cohesion.
• Symbol of Italian Resilience: The Risorgimento symbolizes Italian resilience and determination in the face of adversity. It is celebrated as a defining moment in Italian history, embodying the spirit of freedom, justice, and democracy.

Conclusion

The Risorgimento is a monumental chapter in Italian history, marking the triumph of unity over division and independence over foreign domination. It transformed Italy from a fragmented collection of states into a unified nation-state, laying the foundation for modern Italy. The legacy of the Risorgimento lives on in the Italian identity, fostering a sense of pride in the country’s rich cultural heritage and historical legacy. While the Risorgimento resolved many long-standing issues, challenges such as economic disparities and regional divisions persist, reminding Italy of the ongoing work required to maintain its unity and cohesion.