Peruvian Revolution

Introduction to Peruvian Revolution

The Peruvian Revolution of 1968 marked a seismic shift in the nation’s trajectory, catalyzing significant social, political, and economic transformations. Preceded by decades of entrenched inequality, political turmoil, and economic stagnation, the Revolution emerged as a response to the profound discontent simmering within Peruvian society. Led by military general Juan Velasco Alvarado, the Revolution sought to address the rampant poverty, landlessness, and exploitation plaguing large segments of the population. By seizing power through a bloodless coup, Velasco’s government embarked on a bold agenda of radical reforms, aiming to redistribute wealth, empower marginalized communities, and challenge the dominance of foreign capital. Through its ambitious initiatives, the Peruvian Revolution reshaped the country’s internal dynamics and left an enduring legacy reverberating across Latin America and beyond.

Historical Context

• Pre-Revolutionary Period: Before the revolution, Peru experienced decades of political instability, economic hardship, and social inequality. A small elite class characterized the country, controlling most of the wealth and power. At the same time, the majority of the population, especially rural peasants and indigenous communities, lived in poverty.
• Colonial Legacy: Peru’s history of colonization, first by the Spanish and later by other European powers, had lasting effects on its social, economic, and political structures. Inequitable land distribution, resource extraction, and the marginalization of native populations were among the legacies of colonialism.
• Post-Independence Challenges: After gaining independence from Spain in the early 19th century, Peru faced numerous challenges, including border disputes, political turmoil, and economic instability. The country needed help establishing a stable government and achieving economic development.
• Rise of Leftist Movements: Leftist movements emerged in Latin America in the middle of the 20th century, driven by the Cuban Revolution and Marxist doctrine. These movements sought to address social inequality, poverty, and economic exploitation, leading to revolutionary movements in several countries, including Peru.
• Cold War Context: The Peruvian Revolution occurred during the Cold War, a period of ideological rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States viewed leftist movements in Latin America with suspicion and often intervened in the region to prevent the spread of communism.
• Global Influence: The Peruvian Revolution was part of a broader wave of socialist and revolutionary movements that swept across Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s. It was influenced by and impacted other countries in the region, shaping the political landscape of Latin America during that period.

Causes of the Revolution

The causes of the Peruvian Revolution were multifaceted, stemming from deep-seated issues within Peruvian society. Here are the key causes:

• Socio-Economic Inequality: The pervasive poverty and wealth disparity in Peru, with a small elite controlling most of the country’s resources, created a sense of social injustice and fuelled discontent among the marginalized population.
• Political Corruption and Instability: Widespread corruption and frequent changes in government through undemocratic means eroded public trust in the political system, leading to a desire for fundamental change.
• Influence of Marxist Ideologies: The growing popularity of Marxist ideologies, particularly among intellectuals and students, provided a theoretical framework for challenging the existing capitalist system and advocating for a more equitable society.
• Rural Discontent: Most of Peru’s population lived in rural areas, facing landlessness, poverty, and exploitation. This rural discontent, exacerbated by unequal land distribution, contributed to the revolutionary sentiment.
• Military Dissatisfaction: Discontent within the military ranks over issues such as low pay, poor living conditions, and lack of career advancement opportunities led to a growing sentiment among some military officers that they could play a role in addressing the country’s problems.
• External Influences: The revolutionary wave sweeping across Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s, including the Cuban Revolution, inspired and encouraged leftist movements in Peru to challenge the status quo.
• Youth and Student Movements: Youth and student movements, influenced by global trends of social change and anti-imperialism, played a significant role in mobilizing support for revolutionary ideas and actions.
• Economic Crisis: Peru’s economic stagnation and recession in the 1960s, exacerbated by external debt and dependence on volatile commodity prices, created a sense of urgency for radical change to address the country’s economic woes.

Key Events and Timeline

Year	Event
1968	October 3: A military coup led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado ousts President Fernando Belaúnde Terry, marking the beginning of the Peruvian Revolution.
1969	June 9: Agrarian Reform Law is enacted to redistribute land from large landowners to rural peasants and indigenous communities.
1970	May 13: The International Petroleum Company (IPC) was nationalized, marking the start of the state-led industrialization process.
1971	October 3: Educational Reform Law is implemented to decentralize education and make it more accessible to rural populations.
1975	February 17: The First Agrarian Reform, which further redistributes land and supports agricultural cooperatives, is implemented.
1975-1976	October 11 to July 28: Implementation of the Second Agrarian Reform, targeting remaining large landholdings and providing land titles to previously landless peasants.
1975-1978	October 28 to June 23: Implementation of the Industrial Reform, involving nationalizing and restructuring key industries, including mining and fishing.
1980	December 10: The transition from military rule to civilian government occurred through democratic elections, although some of the revolution’s reforms remained in place.

Major Players

Here are some of the major players involved in the Peruvian Revolution:

• Juan Velasco Alvarado: A Peruvian army general who led the military coup in 1968 and became the Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces leader. He initiated the radical reforms of the Peruvian Revolution.
• Fernando Belaúnde Terry: The President of Peru who was overthrown in the 1968 coup led by Velasco. He represented the traditional political elite that the Revolution challenged.
• Gustavo Mohme Llona: A journalist and political activist who played a key role in the leftist movement in Peru during the Revolution, Gustavo Mohme Llona later became a prominent figure in Peruvian journalism and politics.
• Francisco Morales Bermúdez: Succeeded Velasco as the President of Peru in 1975. He initiated a process of gradual liberalization and transition to civilian rule, marking the end of the revolutionary period.
• APRA (American Popular Revolutionary Alliance): A leftist political party in Peru that was active during the Revolution. It supported some aspects of the Revolution but also criticized its authoritarian tendencies.
• Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces: The military junta that ruled Peru from 1968 to 1980. It implemented the radical reforms of the Revolution, including agrarian reform, nationalization of industries, and educational reform.
• Indigenous and Peasant Movements: Various indigenous and peasant organizations and movements in Peru supported the Revolution’s land reform and social justice goals.
• United Left: A coalition of leftist parties and groups in Peru that supported the Revolution and its socialist agenda. It included communist, socialist, and other leftist factions.

International Influences

• Cuban Revolution: Peru was among the Latin American countries where leftist movements were influenced by the triumph of Fidel Castro’s Cuban Revolution in 1959. The Cuban model of armed Revolution and socialist transformation influenced the ideological outlook of Peruvian revolutionaries.
• Soviet Union and Communist Bloc: The Cold War context led to ideological competition between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union provided ideological support and resources to leftist movements worldwide, including in Peru, albeit to a lesser extent than Cuba.
• United States: Concerned about the spread of communism in Latin America, the United States closely monitored the Peruvian Revolution. The U.S. government viewed the Revolution with suspicion and attempted to undermine it through diplomatic and covert means, fearing the loss of influence in the region.
• Latin American Solidarity Movements: Leftist and progressive movements across Latin America expressed solidarity with the Peruvian Revolution, seeing it as part of a broader struggle against imperialism and inequality. This international support provided moral and political backing to the revolutionaries.
• Non-Aligned Movement: under General Velasco Alvarado’s leadership, Peru pursued a non-alignment policy during the Cold War. This allowed Peru to maintain relations with the Western bloc and the socialist countries while seeking support from other non-aligned nations.
• China: Although not as significant as the influence of Cuba or the Soviet Union, China’s communist Revolution and subsequent foreign policy stance provided another model for socialist transformation. Peru maintained diplomatic relations with China, and Chinese ideology influenced some aspects of the Peruvian Revolution.
• International Financial Institutions: The economic reforms of the Peruvian Revolution, including nationalizations and land reforms, sometimes clashed with the interests of international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which advocated for neoliberal economic policies.

Legacy and Impact

• Social Justice: The Peruvian Revolution brought attention to social inequality and injustice, laying the groundwork for ongoing efforts to address poverty, discrimination, and marginalization in Peruvian society.
• Land Reform: The Revolution’s land redistribution policies empowered rural peasants and indigenous communities by providing them access to land and resources, though land tenure and productivity challenges persisted.
• Educational Reform: The Revolution’s educational reforms aimed to decentralize education and make it more accessible to all Peruvians, contributing to increased literacy rates and educational opportunities across the country.
• Healthcare Reform: Efforts to improve healthcare services, particularly in rural areas, expanded access to medical care and contributed to improvements in public health indicators such as infant mortality rates.
• Economic Transformation: While the nationalization of industries aimed to reduce foreign control and increase state revenue, it also led to economic challenges, including inefficiencies and a decline in private investment, leaving a mixed legacy.
• Political Transition: The transition back to civilian rule in 1980 marked a significant shift in Peru’s political landscape, with the legacy of the Revolution shaping debates and policies in subsequent governments.
• Regional Influence: The Peruvian Revolution inspired other leftist movements and governments in Latin America, contributing to the broader wave of socialist and revolutionary movements during the 1960s and 1970s.
• Cultural Identity: Efforts to promote indigenous rights and culture highlighted the diversity of Peru’s population and underscored the need to address historical injustices indigenous communities face, leaving a lasting impact on the country’s cultural identity.
• International Relations: The Revolution affected Peru’s relations with other countries, particularly the United States, leading to tensions and shaping regional diplomatic and economic interactions.
• Complex Legacy: The Peruvian Revolution’s legacy is multifaceted, encompassing both beneficial and detrimental effects. It highlights the challenges and opportunities of pursuing radical social and economic change.

Criticisms and Controversies

• Authoritarian Rule: Critics argue that the revolutionary government, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, displayed authoritarian tendencies, including media censorship, suppression of political dissent, and human rights abuses.
• Economic Mismanagement: Some economists and policymakers criticize the Revolution’s economic policies, particularly the nationalization of industries, for leading to inefficiencies, decreased productivity, and a decline in private investment, exacerbating economic challenges in the long term.
• Failure to Address Root Causes: Although the revolutionary government made efforts to enact social and economic reforms, critics argue that it did not sufficiently tackle the underlying causes of inequality, poverty, and social exclusion in Peru, resulting in ongoing socio-economic challenges.
• Impact on Indigenous Communities: While the Revolution aimed to promote indigenous rights and empower marginalized groups, some indigenous communities faced displacement and loss of land due to the implementation of land reforms, leading to tensions and conflicts.
• Foreign Relations and Diplomacy: The Revolution strained Peru’s relations with the United States and other Western powers, leading to tensions and economic challenges, particularly regarding foreign investment and trade.
• Legacy of Corruption: Critics argue that the revolutionary government’s centralized control over the economy and resources facilitated corruption and patronage networks, undermining the goals of social justice and equitable development.
• Legacy of Violence: While the Peruvian Revolution was largely bloodless, it contributed to a period of political violence and conflict in Peru during the 1980s and 1990s, including the rise of insurgent groups such as the Shining Path, which sought to overthrow the government through armed struggle.
• Lack of Sustainable Development: Despite initial efforts to implement social and economic reforms, critics argue that the Revolution ultimately failed to achieve sustainable development and improve the overall well-being of the Peruvian population in the long term.
• Environmental Impact: Some critics highlight the negative environmental consequences of the Revolution’s development projects, including deforestation, pollution, and habitat destruction, disproportionately affecting indigenous and rural communities.

Conclusion

The Peruvian Revolution of 1968 marked a pivotal moment in the country’s history, characterized by bold attempts to address social inequality, economic disparities, and political instability. Led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, the revolution initiated significant reforms in land distribution, education, and healthcare, aiming to empower marginalized communities and challenge the dominance of the ruling elite. Despite facing criticism for authoritarianism and economic mismanagement, the revolution left a lasting legacy, shaping Peru’s political, social, and economic landscape. Its impact reverberated across Latin America, inspiring other leftist movements and contributing to ongoing social justice and development debates.